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During World these populations. Long-standing differences all foods by 10 percent.” The reduced-fat diet
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War II, meat in environmental, genetic and metabolic char- recommended by the DGA has also been linked
acteristics may mean recommendations that are to lower intakes of several important essential
and fats were merely ineffective in preventing chronic disease nutrients. In one study, lower fat intake was as-
considered in white, middle-class Americans and are in fact sociated with lower intake of nine out of fourteen
such valuable detrimental to the long-term health of black and important micronutrients, independent of calorie
intake.
low-income Americans.
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sources of Choline, which was not recognized as an
nutrition that ADEQUATE ESSENTIAL NUTRITION essential nutrient until after the first DGA were
While on the one hand the DGA have failed created, plays an important role in brain devel-
Americans to prevent chronic disease, on the other hand opment in fetuses, and adequate amounts are
back home they have also failed to provide Americans with important for the prevention of liver disease,

were asked guidance in accordance with obtaining adequate atherosclerosis, and neurological disorders.
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to save them essential nutrition. Before the 1977 Dietary Goals Current average intakes of choline are far below
were created, federal dietary recommendations established adequate levels. Scientists have
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for the troops focused on foods Americans were encouraged suggested that, “Given the importance of cho-
and eat to eat in order to acquire adequate nutrition, not line in a wide range of critical functions in the

fish and on food components to limit or avoid in order to human body, coupled with the less than optimal
prevent chronic disease. Meat, eggs, butter and intakes among the population, dietary guidance
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vegetables whole milk were considered important sources should be developed to encourage the intake of
instead. of essential nutrients, and avoiding saturated fat choline-rich foods.” However, consumption of
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in food was considered a “questionable dietary eggs and meat, two foods that are rich in choline,
practice” adopted by “food faddists.” During is restricted by current DGA recommendations
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World War II, meat and fats were considered such that limit intake of cholesterol and saturated fat.
valuable sources of nutrition that Americans back
home were asked to save them for the troops and NARROW APPROACH TO
eat fish and vegetables instead. In fact, prior to NUTRITION AND HEALTH
the creation of the DGA, Americans got about 36 In 1977, the Dietary Goals acknowledged
percent of their calories from grains, fruits, and that “genetic and other individual differences
vegetables and over 50 percent of their calories mean that these guidelines may not be appli-
from meat, eggs, cream, cheese, and fat. 48 cable to all.” However, this qualification has
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From the beginning, scientists were con- been muted in subsequent DGA. Although it is
cerned that recommendations warning people clear that good nutrition plays an important role
to limit their intake of foods that were tradition- in long-term health, when the first DGA were
ally considered to be highly nutritious would created the particular dietary pattern that would
adversely affect intake of essential nutrients. In be optimal for achieving lifelong health was un-
response to the 1977 Dietary Goals, one scientist clear; that is still the case today. Early critics of
argued that "there are serious nutritional prob- the Guidelines felt that the scientific model used
lems that affect many Americans that are clearly to address nutrient deficiencies did not apply to
related to dietary inadequacies, particularly of chronic diseases such as heart disease and can-
high-quality protein . . . implementation of your cer. Scientists thirty years later express similar
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recommendations could have a negative effect concerns, adding that “nutrient-based metrics
on these problems." [of current recommendations] are hampered by
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In fact, research has found that following imprecise definitions and inconsistent usage,”
DGA recommendations can have a detrimental and “few individuals can accurately gauge daily
impact on intake of essential nutrition. A 2013 consumption of calories, fats, cholesterol, fiber or
study demonstrated that sodium restrictions in salt.” However, current Guideline recommenda-
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the 2010 DGA are “incompatible with potas- tions urge Americans to track food and calorie
sium guidelines and with nutritionally adequate intake as means of achieving a healthy diet.
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diets, even after reducing the sodium content of Furthermore, the DGA have institutional-
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